Understanding the Arab World in the Middle East

The Arab world in the Middle East is an enigma to most Americans. Few are aware of the contributions of Arab and Muslim culture to the West, how the legacy of Greek and Latin antiquity was preserved, adapted and translated so that medieval scholars and Renaissance scholars later could profit from a legacy that otherwise would have been lost.

Muslim scholars translated scientific texts into Latin in the 12 th century. The great Persian philosopher Avicenna (980-1037) had a great impact on Roger Bacon, Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. The Arab philosopher from Andalusia, Averroës (1126-1198) introduced the West to the writings of Aristotle. It is noteworthy that many of the great Jewish philosophers like Maimonides (Ibn Ma'moun) did most of their philosophical writing in Arabic. For example, as the historian Jaroslav Pelikan had pointed out, two of the most important doctrinal expositions in Christianity and Judaism - An Exact Exposition of the Orthodox Faith by John of Damascus (Saint John Damascene) and Guide for the Perplexed by Moses Maimonides - were written under the protection of Islamic rulers, the latter written in Arabic no less. (1) "The Arab contribution to mathematics - the development of the decimal system and Arabic numeral notation - is so important that it is the cornerstone of modern mathematics." (2)

Middle Eastern authorities note that for a very long time the lingua franca of the Eastern Mediterranean was Aramaic (still spoken in remote corners of Syria, for instance) - also known as Syriac. The Syriacs of the region played an important role after the advent of Islam because they were exposed to to the Greek Byzantine and Latin Roman cultures as well. Muslim scholars were exposed to the Greek and Latin writings through Arabic translations. They also benefitted from knowledge gained from Hindu civiliations (e.g. the numbers).

Arabic thus became the lingua franca in lieu of Aramaic. Although these peopels and scholars were predionantly Muslims, this does not mean that they all spoke Arabic as their mother tongue. There were many Jews like Maimonides in the Levant and in Spain. Many of the scholars were Persians (like Avicenna) who had their own language.

The following brief outline is an effort on my part to better understand the happenings today in the Middle East, the parties involved, the geography, and terminology one encounters in the media. I have found this informative and I hope you will as well.

**Arab Nations of the Middle East (Asia)**
Nation	Capital City	Religious adherence
Bahrain	Manama	70% Shi'a, 30% Sunni
Iraq	Baghdad	60%Shi'a, 32% Sunni, 3% Christian
Jordan	Amman	92% Sunni, 6% Christian; Druze
Kuwait	Kuwait City	45% Sunni, 40% Shi'a
Lebanon	Beirut	70% various Muslim, 30% Christian; Druze
Oman	Muscat	75% Ibadhi Muslim
Qatar	Doha	Sunni
Saudi Arabia	Riyadh	Wahabbi Sunni and a persecuted Shia minority
Syria	Damascus	74% Sunni, 16% other Muslim (Alawite, Druze), l0 % Christian until the recent fall
"		of Saddam - many now in flight
United Arab Emirates	Abu Dhabi	80% Sunni, 16% Shi'a
Yemen	Sana'a	Shaf'i Sunni, Zaydi Shi'a
Palestinian territory	not yet a state	Gaza Strip: 98.7% Sunni
"	West Bank	75% Sunni, 17% Jewish, 8% Christian

**Non-Arab nations in the Middle East**
Nation	Capital	Religious adherence
Iran	Tehran	89% Shi'a, 10% Sunni, Zoroastrian and
"	"	Christian
Israel *	Tel Aviv	80% Jewish, 14% Sunni, 2% Christian Druze and Baha'i
Turkey	Ankara	99.8% Sunni
Afghanistan**	Kabul	84% Sunni, 15% Shi'a

* To view a MSNBC map detailing Israel's arsenal of biological, chemical and nuclear weapons see: the following site:

http://www.msnbc.com/news/wld/graphics/strategic_israel_dw.htm

(** This last not really part of the Middle East but it is of current interest) as is Pakistan)

**Arab Nations of North Africa**
Nation	Capital	Religious adherence
Algeria	Algiers	99% Sunni
Egypt	Cairo	94% mostly Sunni, 6% Coptic Christian
Libya	Tripoli	97% Sunni
Morocco	Rabat	98.7% mostly Sunni
Tunisia	Tunis	98% mostly Sunni

**Other African nations with a large Arab population**
Sudan (39% Arab)	Khartoum	70% Sunni
Western Sahara	none	Sunni
Mauritania	Nouakchott	100% Sunni

Somalia is also a member of the Arab League, but speak a lanhuage different from Arabic

**African countries with a smaller Arab population**
Chad	N'Djamena	50% Muslim. 25% Christian
"	"	25% indigenous
Djibouti	Djibouti	94% Muslim
Somalia	Mogadishu	Sunni

According to Dr. Audrey Shabas the one scholar who is fluent in all four of the above is Dr. Alan Godlas of the University of Georgia. His home page is said to be the best web site on Islam.

Other languages: (preserved mainly because the speakers live in mountainous and more remote areas)

            1. Kurdish (about 30 million)
            2. Amharic (Ethiopia and Somalia)
            3. Armenian
            4. Aramaic (Assyrian, Chaldean, etc.)
            5. Berber (Tamazight)
            (Urdu is spoken in Pakistan and Afghanistan - not actually considered part of the Middle East)

A - The Muslim population in the Middle East is made up of two large groupings:

Just as the Christian world underwent a great schism in 1054 that has lasted till the present
moment so too the religion of Islam has experience divisions and sects.

1. The Sunni Muslims: (Arabic: sunniyy) Main group in Islam, making up 90% of the religion's adherents. This brand of Islam has dominated almost continuously since 661, when the Shi'is departed from the main fold. Sunni Islam claims to be the continuation of the Islam as it was defined through the revelations given to Muhammad and his life. In the Middle East and North Africa Sunni Muslems:

                - population and rulers of Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, all the Persian Gulf states
                    such as Qatar, Bahrain, etc.
                - population and rulers of Egypt, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, and Morocco
                - the majority population of Syria is Sunni - but the ruling power is the Alawite minority
                - majority population in Jordan and Palestine

Note: the eventual wrting down of the Quran is attributed to scribes and companions of Mohammed, in particular Mohammed's companion Zaid Ibn Thabit.

2. The Shiite Muslims: The largest non-Sunni branch of Islam, the Shi`i, in their various forms represent some 10-15 percent of Muslims. The term Shi'i refers to the partisans of the fourth Caliph, Ali, who was Muhammad's son in law through his daughter Fatima and the last Caliph to be elected, as well as the last to be drawn from the original nucleus of converts from the Mecca-Medina period.
The Shi'i, in their various forms, are significant minorities in Lebanon, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Yemen, Bahrain, the Gulf States, Pakistan and India. They make up the overwhelming majority (88%) in Iran where Shi'i Islam has been the state religion since the 16th century AD. In summary, these Muslems in the Middle East make up:

                - the population and rulers of Iran
                - the poorer minority populations in the Persian Gulf states and southern Iraq (Basra area)
                - the largest religious community in Lebanon (includes the Hesbollah)

                 - Alawites: in Arabic: calawî (sing.), calawîya (pl.) An Islamic sect, stemming from the Twelve Shi'is.
           They live in Syria, mainly in the mountains near the city of Latakia, but many also live in the cities of Hama and Homs, and in recent decades there has been a migration to Damascus.
           Their exact number is not known, but estimated to be between 1,5 and 1,8 million. Most of them live from agriculture, but the Alawaites are also central in the leadership of Syria. The president of Syria, Bashar al-Assad, is aan Alawite as was his father, Hafez al-Assad. The Alawites remain the ruling class in Syria.

                 - Druze   in Arabic: durzî (singular) durûz (plural)
         Religion and group of people with somewhere between 350,000 (estimate of Western scholars) and 900,000 (figures as presented by the Druze) are strong in Lebanon, but are also found in Syria, Jordan and Israel, often in mountainous regions. There are also important Druze communities abroad, living in Europe and USA.
         While the Druze are not regarded as Muslims by other Muslims, they regard themselves as Muslims as well as carriers of the core of this religion. The origin of Druze is to a large extent from a group of Shi'is, the Isma'ilis, but they have diverged much, and the Koran does not seem to be a part of their religion. The Druze call themselves muwahhidun, 'monotheists'. They are the only Arabs to serve in the Israeli army.

- Kurds: Kurds are the largest ethnic group in the world (25 million) without a homeland, "Kurdistan" a territory covering southeastern Turkey, northeastern Syria, northern Iraq, western Iran, Azerbaijan and Armenia. The clear majority of Kurds are Sunni Muslims, but a small group of less than 100,000 living in Iraq (small communities scattered in Turkey, Iran, and Syria, too) are Yazidis, the so called "devil worshipers" Kurds are predominantly living in rural districts.

                - Yazidis, known for the yazidi religion of Ninevah are found in Iraq (Mesopotamia), Syria, Iran and Turkey. Their shrine                     is in Iraq

                - Turks: Ataturk tried to Westernize Turkey by adapting the Western alphabet, eliminating /60% of the "loan"                         words that were borriowed from Persian and Arabic.

B - Christians in the Middle East: (see in greater detail below)

                - Israel (see maps below)
                    - Population: 80.1% Jewish: of which 32.% are of European or American origin,
                    20.8% Israeli born, 14.6% from Africa,
                   12.6% from Asia.
                     Samaritan Jews considered heretical even from biblical tiimes, indiginous Jews who reside in Sechem
                    (Neopolis-Nablus) and its suburbs
                    19.9% non-Jewish population of which 14.6% are mostly Sunni Moslem.
                    2.1% Christian

            18,200 Arabs
            16,500 Druze
              1,000   'Alawites
            20,000   Jewish settlers

2. The West Bank (formerly part of Jordan) including East Jerusalem as of July 2000:

The Gaza Strip (fornerly the Palestinian authority - today under Hamas leadership)

99.4 % Arab population
0.6% 7,000 Jewish settlers living on 17 settlements were removed by Israel (August-September 2005). Air space and borders remain under Israeli control.

The P.L.O. an umbrella organization for many Palestinian factions and founded in 1964:

Hamas (Arabic acronym standing for "Islamic Resistance Movement" a Sunni Muslem organization located in the occupied territories, its leadership in Gaza was killed by the Israelis and is now led by Khalid Mouchaal from Syria..A third of Hamas legislators are presently in Israeli jails.

Tunesians: Derogatory word used by Palestinians for those Palestinian officials living in Tunesia who came to Palestine with Arafat when the PLO exile ended.

Allah hu akbar: Arabic term: God is most great.

Islam: The word 'Islam' is best translated with 'submission [under the will and guidance of God]', but it has a deeper meaning by coming from the same Arabic root (s-l-m) as 'salam', peace, and 'salama', safety and security.

Dome of the Rock: great mosque in Jerusalem (A.D. 687-691) believed by many to have been built on the sire of the Second Temple.

Koran (Qur'an): The holy book of Islam. It contains 114 chapter (surah). Four sacred books are mentioned in the Qu'ran:
            - the Torag
            - the Psalms
            - the Gospel
            - the Qu'ran

kufr: disbelief or atheism There is a distinction between "kufr" and "kafir" (below):

kafir: a disbeliever. The term "infidel" is a purely Christian term that dates from the period of the Crusades. A kafir kniows the "truth but covers it or denies it.

Fellahin: (plural peasants or farm laborers

Intifada: (in Arabic: intifâda -an Arabic term that illustrates the death agony movements of a chicken that has just been beheaded.) A popular broad-based Palestinian uprising in the Israeli occupied territories. The first Intifada dates from 1987 to 1993. The Intifada involved demonstrations, strikes, riots and violence, and was performed both in Gaza Strip and on the West Bank. Sept 2000

Al Jazeera (means "island" in Arabic. It refers to the Arabian Peninsula) : an independent Arab satellite TV station based in the Persian Gulf state of Qatar. This free-for-all station is broadcasting all over the Arab world and shaking up regimes and their population who have been used to only government-controlled media up till now.

Wahhabism: An extreme, puritanical brand of Islam as promoted by the Saudi monarchy. It is this version of Islam that is practiced by Saudi native Osama bin Laden. The Wahhabi movement to reform Islam dates from the 18 th century.

Shari'ah: is the total sum of injunctions of Islamic law, "the way of life that the Creator intends for the created who believe in him, to abide by and to follow." The number one source of the Shari'ah is the Qur'an (Koran) "the very words of Allah...preserved word to word and letter to letter." Where practiced to the letter, as in Saudi Arabia, Shari'ah is very severe resulting in punishments such as amputation and the death penalty. One must be careful to distinguish Islamic law from the various cultural practices in different countries..

Jihad: (in Arabic: jihâd) Arabic for 'battle; struggle; holy war for the religion.
Jihad has two possible definitions: the greater, which is the spiritual struggle of each man, against
vice, passion and ignorance.
The lesser jihad is simplified to cover holy war against infidels and infidel countries. This kind of jihad is described in both the Holy Koran and in the hadiths (collections of sayings and acts of Muhammad and the first Muslims that are used as an addition to the Holy Koran for understanding Islam.) Jihad can be mean "defence" as well as "attack."

Islamic Jihad: Egyptian Islamic extremist group active since the late 1970s. Close partner of Bin Ladin's al-Qaida organization. It suffered setbacks as a result of numerous arrests of operatives worldwide, most recently in Lebanon and Yemen. Primary goals are to overthrow the Egyptian Government and replace it with an Islamic state.

Al Qa'ida: (in Arabic: al-qâcida, meaning the "base" or "foundation" and, by extension, "headquarteres") A pan-Islamist network of organizations established in the late 1980's; spread around all of the Muslim world, and also with groups in Europe, Asia, USA and Canada. Al-Qa'ida is involved in many fields, from humanitarian work to international terrorism. Its most profiled leader, Osama bin Laden, has his base in the southern Afghanistan mountains. It helped to finance, recruit, transport, and Islamic fighters from the Arab world to assist the Afghan resistance to Soviet invasion. During that time these "freedom fighters" were supported by the United States.

Mujahedeen: (singular: Mujahid) literally, "one who is engaged in jihad." Muslem guerilla force in a holy mission for Allah. There are various spellings used for this word.

-stan (as in Afghanistan, Uzbekistan, etc.): means "country" from an Indo-Iranian word meaning "place" or "where one stands."

Afghan/afghani: According to the New York Times an Afghan is a person from Afghanistan and afghani is the local currency (5,000 afghanis to the dollar). An Afghan is also a kind of rug and a breed of dog.

Taliban: the Pashto plural from the Arabic word "Talib," which means "searcher" or "student of religious knowledge."
Afghan Islamic fundamentalist group. The Taliban's leader is Mullah Mohammad Omar.

Fatwa: Arabic: fatwâ. Fatwa is a legal statement in Islam (like an edict) issued by a mufti or a religious lawyer, on a specific issue.

Shatt-al-Arab: the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Iraq upstream fromBasra.

al-Nakba: "the catastrophe or catyclusm" 99refers to the 1947-1948 mass deportation of millions of Palestinians from their cities and villages, massacres of civilians and razing to the ground entire villages and homes http://www.alnakba.org

1998 marks the 50th anniversary of the Nakba (cataclysm). In human terms, that year saw the mass deportation of a million Palestinians from their cities and villages, Some lyrical passages from the Qur'an(Koran)

"He is found everywhere: The East and the West are God's.
Wherever you may turn, there will be God's countenance.
God knows everthing: He is omniscient.
God has knowledge about the Hour.
He sends down showers and knows whatever wombs contain.
Yet no person knows what he will earn tomorrow
nor does any person know in what land he will die.
Still God is aware.

Praise be to God Lord of the Universe
the mercygiving, the merciful
Ruler on the Day of Repayment.
You do we worship and You do we call on for help.
Guide us along the Straight Road,
the road of those whom you have favored
with whom you are not angry,
nor who are lost.

O God, calm my desolation in my grave!
O God, grant me mercy through the mighty Qu'ran
and place it before me as a token
and as a Light and guidance, and a mercy.

O God, make me remember
whatever I may forget of it,
teach me what I may ignore of it,
and sustain me while it is being recited
in the small hours of the night
and the early hours of the day.

Christmas in the Koran (Qur'an)

What does the Koran say about the birth of Jesus? Fellow Christians in a world that so easily demonizes Islam might be interested in knowing what the Koran has to say about Mary and the birth of Jesus. Despite some genealogical differences in the family tree I was pleased by these reverential texts I came across, as follows:

From the Qur'an

On Mary: (Surah III)

Thus the woman (Mary’s mother)y) said: “My Lord, I have freely consecrated whatever is in my womb to You.”
…. When she gave birth, she said, “My Lord, I have given birth to a daughter. I have named her Mary, and askYou to protect her and her offspring from Satan the Outcast.”
Her Lord accepted her in a handsome manner and caused her to grow like a lovely plant.”

On the birth of John: (Surah III)

(The father of John) “appealed to his Lord, he said: "My Lord, grant me goodly offspring from Your presence, for You are the Hearer of Appeals.” The angels called him while he was standing praying in the shrine: “God gives you news of John, who will confirm word from God, masterful yet circumspect, and a prophet chosen from among honorable people.”
He said: “My Lord, how can I have a boy? Old age has overtaken me, while my wife is barren.”
He said: “Even so does God do anything He wishes.”
He said: My Lord, grant me a sign.”
He said: “Your sign is that you will not speak to people for three days except through gestures.?

Also on John the Koran says:

“Peace be upon him the day he was born and the day he will die.
And the day he is raised to life again” (Surah 19)

Also on Mary the Koran says:

So the angels said: “Mary, God has selected you and purified you. He has selected you over all the women in the Universe. Mary, devote yourself to your Lord, fall down on your knees and bow alongside those who so bow down.”

Thus the angel said: “Mary, God announces word to you about someone whose name will be Christ Jesus, the son of Mary, who is well regarded in this world and the Hereafter, and one of those drawn near to God. He will speak to people while still an infant and as an adult. And will be an honorable person.”
She said: “My Lord, how can I have a child while no human being has ever touched me?”

He said: “That is how God creates anything he wishes. Whenever He decides upon some matter, He merely tells it: ‘Be!’ = and it is. He will teach him the Book and wisdom, plus the Torah and the Gospel as a messenger to the children of Israel.”

Much of the Nativity story (above) is repeated in Surah 19 entitled “Mary.”

Elsewhere the Koran says:

And concerning Mary…. who preserved her chastity: “We breathed some of Our spirit into her womb and she thereby confirmed her Lord’s words and books. She was so prayerful.” (Surah 66)

************************************************
There is much more about Jesus throughout the Koran. Although Jesus is not divine and in Islamic monotheism there is no place for a Trinity, Jesus is considered God’s Messenger and a prophet.
It is well for Christians to preserve these words in their hearts.

Source: The Qur'an, translated by T.B. Irving (Al-Jajj Ta’lim’Ali)
Goodword Books, New Delhi, 1999.
******************************************************

Christians in the Holy Land (source: Holy Land Christian Ecumenical Foundation - HCEF)

After two thousand years, Christian families are still living and worshiping in the land where Jesus was born, died, and resurrected. These Christians are not immigrants. They are not converts from Judaism or Islam. They are the descendents of those who first believed in Jesus Christ. They live in Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth, Madaba, Karak and other places in Palestine, Jordan and Israel. They are Arab Christians - Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant. Together, they comprise the Mother Church.

All Christianity traces its roots to the first Christian Pentecost (Acts 2:11). The Church was born when the Holy Spirit, in the form of tongues of fire, descended upon the disciples in the Upper Room nearly 2,000 years ago.

Christians and Churches of the Holy Land

Palestinian Christians, the forgotten faithful, belong to the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant communities. Their language is Arabic; they are considered forgotten because most Christians in the West are unaware of their existence.

In the universal church, Palestinian Christians are unique due to their centuries of history and attachment to the land of Jesus Christ's birth, death, and resurrection. Some of these Christians can trace their family lineage to the early days of the church; they are the direct descendants of those who first followed Jesus.

Living under Israeli occupation, seeing their homes and lands confiscated, having schools repeatedly closed, blocked from traveling even for health or religious purposes, and with increasingly limited employment opportunities, thousands of Christians have emigrated to other countries.

In 1948, Christians comprised about 18 percent of the population of the Holy Land; today they are less than 2 percent. The population decline in Jerusalem has been even more dramatic. In 1922, Christians numbered 51 percent of the population in Jerusalem; in 1978, 10 percent; and in 1990, only 4 percent of the population was Christian. The Christians who remain deserve recognition of their struggle to gain freedom and peace in the land called holy. Pilgrims from the West who meet and pray with Holy Land Christians realize that they have individually and collectively shared deeply in the way of the cross.

The Christian Churches of Jerusalem

ORIENTAL ORTHODOX

Armenian Orthodox Church
Armenian Christian pilgrims began to travel to the Holy Land in AD 301. Armenians claim to have the longest uninterrupted presence in Jerusalem, and the Armenian Church is one of the three guardians of the Holy Places, along with the Greek Orthodox and the Franciscan Holy Custody (Catholics). After the Armenian genocide of 1915 in Ottoman Turkey, in which it is claimed that more than one and a half million Armenians were killed, 20,000 Armenians fled to the Holy Land. Ten thousand of them sought refuge in the Convent of the Olive Tree itself. Today, there are about 2,000 Armenians in Jerusalem, around half of whom live in the Armenian quarter.

Syrian Orthodox Church
The word "syrian" does not refer to the location of the church but rather to its use of the Syriac Aramaic language, a dialect of the language Jesus spoke in first-century Palestine. Syrian Christians see themselves as the first people to adopt Christianity as natives of the Holy Land. The Apostle Peter is considered to have been appointed the Syrian Orthodox Church's first Patriarch in AD 37. There are only 500-700 Syrian Orthodox Christians in Jerusalem today. Before 1948 and the creation of the State of Israel, there were around 6,000 families. There are currently around 6,000 Syrian Orthodox Christians in the Holy Land, most of them living in the Bethlehem area.

Ethiopian Orthodox Church
The Ethiopians trace their link with Jerusalem back 3,000 years to when the Ethiopian Queen of Sheba is said to have visited King Solomon in Jerusalem. Legend has embellished the biblical references to her visit by including a tradition that the Queen not only adopted King Solomon's faith during her six-month stay but returned to Ethiopia pregnant with his child. There she gave birth to a son, Menelik, meaning 'son of the King,' who later visited his father in Jerusalem and returned with priests from the Temple of Jerusalem and instruments of worship from the Temple in Jerusalem such as temple drums. These drums are one of the most distinctive features of Ethiopian Christian worship today. Christianity was introduced to Ethiopia in AD 34 when the finance minister of Queen Candace of Ethiopia, who was visiting Jerusalem, was baptized by the Apostle Philip and, in turn, introduced baptism in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Orthodox Christians are proud of their Jewish roots and links with Jerusalem. Certain Ethiopian customs still follow Jewish practice today. There are around 2,000 Ethiopian Christians in the Holy Land today. The worship is in Ge'ez - the liturgical language of Ethiopian Christians and a product of Hebrew and Arabic languages.

Coptic Orthodox Church
The Coptic Orthodox Church traces its founding back to St. Mark and is the largest Christian church in the Middle East today. The liturgy is in the Coptic language and also in Arabic. There are now around 2,000 Copts in the Holy Land. Many are originally from Egypt. The word Copt, in fact, derives from the Greek word Aigyptos, meaning Egyptian, and is used for all Egyptian Christians. The Coptic Orthodox Church takes pride in its country's place in the Bible. Egypt is mentioned in the lives of Abraham, Joseph, Jacob, Moses and Jeremiah, and there were residents of Egypt present in Jerusalem at the day of Pentecost. The Coptic Church is especially proud that Egyptian hospitality housed the Holy Family in its flight from Herod.

EASTERN ORTHODOX

Greek Orthodox Church
The Greek Orthodox is the largest faith community in the Holy Land with about 60,000 members. The Church dates itself back to the Apostle James who was the first Bishop of Jerusalem. Ever since AD 451, except during the Crusades, Jerusalem has been a Patriarchate of the Greek Orthodox Church and the Greek Patriarch has the status of 'first' when the church leaders in Jerusalem meet. The Jerusalem Patriarchate is one of the three guardians of the Holy places, through its Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. The Patriarch, the upper hierarchy, and the Brotherhood are almost all Greeks, while the parish priests and lay people are Arabs. The Byzantine liturgy is celebrated in Greek in the monasteries and Arabic in the parish churches.

Russian Orthodox Church
Byzantine Orthodox Christianity became the state religion in Russia in AD 988. During the eleventh century, Russian pilgrims began to make their way to the Holy Land, but they did not establish their own institutions in Palestine until the 19th century, when pilgrims started to come in their thousands to Jerusalem. After the Crimean War, when the number of pilgrims made a dramatic increase and the Tsar was eager to increase his influence in the region, 32 acres of choice real estate were acquired by the Russians, and the area now known as the Russian Compound was built. The Russian Revolution of 1917 and its disdain of the Church put an end to pilgrimage and also gave rise to a 'Church in Exile' or 'The Church Abroad.' The continuing Patriarchate in Moscow is called 'The Moscow Patriarchate.' Both groups hold property and churches in Jerusalem and, since the collapse of Communism and the greater openness to the Christian faith in Russia, there has been increased dispute over ownership and who is the authentic voice of Russian Orthodoxy in the Holy Land.

Romanian Orthodox Church
The Romanian church was established in Jerusalem in 1935. Ten years earlier, the Church of Romania, with its headquarters in Bucharest, received the status of Patriarchate in the family of Orthodox churches, recognized as a leading Orthodox Church and Orthodox nation in the world because of its numbers and uninterrupted Christian witness. Romanian Orthodox tradition relates that the Virgin Mary asked her son to give her as an earthly dowry the gift of praying and defending the people of a certain land. Christ is said to have given her Mount Athos and the 'ring' of Romania, which is the shape of Romania's map. Thus, Romania is believed to be under her care.

CATHOLIC

Overview
The Catholic Church in the Holy Land belongs to seven Catholic Patriarchates: Roman Catholics; Greek Catholics or Melkites (see separate entry); Syrian Catholics; Maronites; Armenian Catholics; Chaldean Catholics; and Coptic Catholics. The two main groups are the Roman Catholics, known in the Holy Land as Latins, and the Greek Catholics (Melkites).

Roman Catholic or Latin Church
The Latins are the largest group in the city of Jerusalem with around 5,000 members. The Latin Patriarchate was established in Jerusalem in 1099 during the Crusades. A century later, when the Crusaders were conquered and forced to leave the city, the Latin hierarchy fled with them. In the absence of a residential Patriarch, Pope Clement VI, in 1342, made the Franciscan friars the official custodians of the Holy Land. Over the next 500 years, the Franciscans were the Latin Church presence in the Holy Land, guarding the Holy Places and encouraging the growth of the local churches. In the mid-19th century, the Latin Patriarchate was reestablished in Jerusalem. Latin-rite Catholics are largely Palestinian Arabs with the parish clergy and the Patriarch of Palestinian origin.

The Maronite Church of Antioch (founded by St. Maron) is the largest church in Lebanon. The Chaldean Catholic Church, separated from the Assyrian Church of the East in the mid-1500s, is now the largest Christian Church in Iraq. Both the Syrian Catholic Church and the Armenian Catholic Church retain much of the language and liturgy of their Orthodox counterparts but both are in communion with Rome.

Greek Catholic (Melkite) Church
The Greek Catholic (Melkite) Church was officially founded in 1724 after a split in the Patriarch of Antioch. One group continued as the Greek Orthodox Church of Antioch with its own Patriarch, while another bishop was recognized by the Roman Pope as the Patriarch of the Greek Catholic Church. Although they have adopted some Roman Catholic practices, the Melkites have maintained the Byzantine liturgy (somewhat abbreviated) and many other Orthodox traditions. Worship is mostly in Arabic. Today there are 53,000 Greek Catholics in the Holy Land, making them overall the second largest Church after the Greek Orthodox. Around 50,000 live in the Galilee region. There is still a small community in Jerusalem.

THE EVANGELICALS

Anglican Church
The Jerusalem Diocese of the Episcopal Church of Jerusalem and the Middle East was born in the 19th century with the missionary movement. It shared a bishopric with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Jordan until the late 19th century, after which England continued its support of the Anglicans separately. Today, the Anglican Church has an Arab bishop and a large number of local schools and social service agencies. The Anglican Cathedral in Jerusalem has both an Arab and an expatriate congregation who work closely together. Worship is in both English and Arabic.

Evangelical Lutheran Church of Jordan (ELCJ)
The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Jordan came together with the Anglican Church in the 19th century with the missionary movement. It shared a bishopric with the Anglican Church until the late 19th century, after which Germany continued its support of the ELCJ separately. The Evangelical Lutheran Church of Jordan includes six Arab-speaking congregations in Jerusalem and the West Bank and one in Amman, Jordan. Worship also occurs in German and English. Danish Lutherans also worship with the ELCJ.
The ELCJ has a strong educational ministry, with 3,000 pupils in six schools, and is involved in ecumenical work and inter-faith dialogue. It also sponsors hospices and hospitals in Palestine.

This information was excerpted from Living Stones Pilgrimage by Alison Hilliard and Betty Jane Bailey (University of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, IN 1999)

A Timeline of the Israeli-Arab Conflict

1897	First Zionist Congress discusses plans to establish a Jewish state in Palestine
WW1	The Ottoman Empire, ruler of the Arab world since 1500’s, is defeated.
1916	*Sykes-Picot Agreement* – divides the Ottoman Arab lands into zones exercised by either French or British spheres of influence. Palestine comes under British influence
1917	Britain signs *Balfour Declaration* which declares “support of the establishment of the Jewish national home . . .and safeguarding the civil and religious rights of all the inhabitants of Palestine.”
1920	League of Nations divides Arab lands into entities called mandates to eventually spawn nation states for the indigenous people. Britain accepts mandate for Palestine.
1933	Hitler’s rise to power in Germany. Jewish migration into Palestine increases.
1936-1939	*The Arab Revolt* – First major outbreak of Arab-Jewish hostilities. Revolt leads to the *Peel Commission* recommendation in 1937 of partitioning Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. Arabs rejected and Jews accepted but wanted more land.
WWII	Holocaust; Jewish migration into Palestine intensifies (680,000 Jews in Palestine in 1946). Lebanon becomes independent in 1943; Syria in 1944; Jordan in 1946
1946	Hostilities in Palestine escalate including Jewish terrorism against Britain. President Truman expresses support for partition and a “viable Jewish state.”
1947	*UN General Assembly Resolution 181* partitions Palestine into Jewish and Arab states. Greater Jerusalem was to be an international city (corpus separatum). UNSC Res. 181 rejected by Arabs.
1948	British mandate ends; Israel declares statehood. Arab armies attack Israel—war results in a divided Jerusalem and 650,000 Palestinian refugees. *UNGA Res 194* establishes commission to facilitate the repatriation or compensation of refugees.
1949-1950	Armistice. Israel holds 77% of territory. Jordan annexes East Jerusalem and West Bank. Egypt controls Gaza Strip. UNRWA established. Jewish Arabs begin migration into Israel.
1956	*Suez Crisis*. Nasser’s nationalization of the canal leads to military action by France, Britain and Israel. US forces allies’ withdrawal. Eisenhower threatens economic sanctions on Israel if it failed to do so.
1964	Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) is established.
1967	*Six Day War: -– Israel conquers the Sinai, Golan Heights, Gaza Strip, the West Bank, and East Jerusalem, which it annexed. 600,000 Palestinians become refugees. UNSC Res 242* calls for Israeli withdrawal and establishes “land for peace” principle.
1969-1970	Israel begins policy of creating facts on the ground by establishing settlements. Egypt’s “War of Attrition” against Israel, with Soviets aiding Nasser, leads to the Rogers Plan which sets UNSC Res. 242 as the basis for negotiations.
1973	*Yom Kippur War –* Egypt and Syria attack Israel. No territorial change. *UNSC Res 338* calls for negotiations between the parties.
1977	Menachem Begin and Likud coalition win Israeli elections. Settlements in occupied territories increase. Egypt’s President Sadat goes to Israel’s Knesset and expresses desire for Egypt and Israel to live together in “permanent peace based on justice” and calls for Palestinian right to its own state.
1978	*Camp David Accords* – through negotiations led by President Carter, Sinai returned to Egypt in exchange for recognition of Israel; sets framework for settling Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Arab League expels Egypt. Israel invades Lebanon, occupies its southern border. _____________________________________________________________________________

1980	Israeli government declares Jerusalem its eternal, undivided capital, affirming the de facto annexation of West Bank environs and East Jerusalem in 1967.
1981	Israel annexes Golan Heights, captured from Syria in 1967.
1982	Israel invades Lebanon a second time and lays siege to Beirut. PLO moves its headquarters from Beirut to Tunis. *Reagan Peace Initiative* and *Fez Summit Peace Proposal*
1987	Intifada, a Palestinian popular uprising, begins in Gaza and spreads to West Bank
1988	*Palestinian National Council* (PNC) accepts UNSC Res. 242 and 338, implicitly recognizing Israel. Declares a Palestinian state. The United States opens dialogue with the PLO.
1991	*Gulf War* begins in January in response to Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in 1990. *Madrid Conference* – Israel and Arabs begin bilateral and multilateral negotiations
1992	Bush-Baker Administration holds up $10 Billion in U.S. loan-guarantees to Israel (fiscal years 1993 to 1997) in attempt to limit Israeli settlement building.
1993	*Oslo Process* begins with Clinton Administration – PLO and Israel sign the *Declaration of Principles.*
1994	*Palestinian Authority* is established in Gaza and Jericho. Arafat arrives in Gaza. Jordan & Israel sign peace treaty. Rabin, Peres, Arafat receive Nobel Peace Prize.
1995	*“Oslo II”* establishes 3 areas in West Bank: Area A— direct Palestinian control. Area B –jointly controlled: Palestinian civilian control and Israeli security control. Area C – exclusive Israeli control. Prime Minister Rabin is assassinated in Tel Aviv.
1996	Palestinian elections; Israel launches “Operation Grapes of Wrath” in southern Lebanon; Netanyahu becomes Prime Minister. Summit in Washington between Arafat, Netanyahu, King Hussein, and Clinton
1997	*Hebron Protocol* signed dividing city of Hebron. Israel starts building a settlement, Har Homa, on a hill overlooking East Jerusalem resulting in widespread protests. Peace process frozen; closures imposed in West Bank and Gaza.
1998	*Wye River Memorandum* is signed but frozen. PNC renounces clauses in PLO charter offensive to Israel
1999	PLO postpones declaration of statehood. Ehud Barak elected as Prime Minister, pledges to work for peace. *Sharm el Sheik memorandum* signed between Israel and PLO, final status talks begin. President Clinton attends PNC Meeting in Gaza.
2000	*Camp David II* – Clinton-led negotiations on final status issues between Barak and Arafat breakdown. *Second Intifada* sparked by Sharon’s provocative visit to Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif. Violence escalates. Protesting Israeli-Arabs shot by Israeli police. *Taba Talks:* Arafat and Barak find common ground but no agreements.
2001	Bush inaugurated. Sharon elected Prime Minister. Violence escalates. *Mitchell Report* released. Ceasefire attempts are made but broken
2002	Reoccupation of Palestinian areas begins. Arafat placed under house arrest. Occupation of Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem. Saudi Crown Prince peace plan, endorsed by Arab League, promises recognition of Israel for ending occupation. UNSC Res. 1397 affirms 2-state vision, welcomes Saudi initiative and Quartet diplomacy. President Bush declares vision for a “viable Palestinian state next to a secure Israel.” Israel begins construction of “security fence” around the West Bank.
2003	US-initiated war begins in Iraq and occupation of Iraq begins. Mahmoud Abbas is elected Prime Minister. The *Road Map* is released. Powell travels to the region.

(Source: May 2003 adaptation by Churches for Middle East Peace from timeline prepared by Rev. Betty J. Bailey)

___________________________________________________________________________________________

29 November : The UN General Assembly adopts the Palestine partition plan by a
two-thirds majority.

9-10 April : Massacre by Irgun troops in the Palestinian village of Deir Yassin.

14 May : Proclamation of the State of Israel. The Arab states reject the partition plan
and their armies enter Palestine (15th).

War in Palestine, ending in Israeli victory. Armistice agreements signed between Israel
and the neighbouring Arab states.

11 December : Adoption of UN Resolution 194, proclaiming the right of Palestinian
refugees to return to their homes.

24 April : The West Bank annexed by Transjordan. Egypt establishes its control of
Gaza.

October : Israel rejects UN peace plan, accepted by Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan.

October-November : Israel, France and Britain attack Egypt, in response to Nasser's
nationalisation of the Suez Canal on 26 July.

                               5 June : Israel attacks Egypt, Syria and Jordan. Following a six-day lightning war Israel
                               occupies Sinai, the Golan, the West Bank, Gaza and East Jerusalem. Settlement begins in
                               the summer.

21 March : Battle of Karameh, in Jordan, between Israeli troops and Palestinians.

10-17 July : Fourth session of the PLO's Palestine National Council. Changes to the
National Charter.

1-4 February : Fifth session of the Palestine National Council. Yasser Arafat becomes
chairman of the PLO's executive committee.

July : President Nasser of Egypt and King Hussein of Jordan accept the Rogers Plan, a
set of US proposals involving implementation of Resolution 242.

                               September : Clashes between the PLO and the Jordanian army (« Black September »). A
                               year later the PLO is expelled from Jordan and the leadership of the Palestinian
                               resistance moves to Lebanon.

5-6 September : Attack at the Munich Olympic Games by a group belonging to the
Palestinian organisation « Black September ». Eleven Israeli athletes and coaches killed.

April : Israeli operation in Beirut. Three PLO leaders killed. Mass demonstrations of
solidarity with the Palestinian resistance in Lebanon.

6 October : Egyptian and Syrian armies launch attack to recover the territories occupied
by Israel. Start of the Yom Kippur war.

22 October : Adoption of Security Council Resolution 338. Fighting stops a few days
later.

                               26-28 November : Arab League summit in Algiers. Resolution passed recognising the
                               PLO recognised as the « sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people ».
                               Jordan abstains.

                               1-9 June : Twelfth session of the Palestine National Council. The PLO accepts the idea
                               of national authority over any liberated part of Palestine. A few weeks later the
                               rejectionist front is formed under the leadership of the Popular Front for the Liberation
                               of Palestine (PFLP).

26-29 October : Arab League summit in Rabat. Jordan joins majority in recognition of
PLO.

                               13 November : Arafat addresses the UN General Assembly. The UN recognises the
                               right of the Palestinians to independence and self-determination. The PLO obtains
                               observer status.

30 March : Land Day demonstrations in Galilee, organised by the Israeli Palestinians,
are violently repressed (six deaths).

13 April : Municipal election in the occupied West Bank. Clear victory for candidates
sympathetic to PLO.

June : Large-scale intervention by Syrian troops in Lebanon against the PLO and the
Lebanese National Movement.

12-20 March : Thirteenth session of the Palestine National Council in Cairo.
Acceptance of the idea of an independent Palestinian state in part of Palestine.

17 May : The right wins the Israeli elections for the first time. Its leader, Menahem
Begin, becomes prime minister.

1 October : US-Soviet declaration on peace in the Middle East, supported by the PLO.

17 September : Camp David accords signed by Egypt, Israel and the United States,
condemned in November by the Arab League summit in Baghdad.